Theory and Theorists

Media Language

1. 5 narrative codes - Roland Barthes

According to theorist Roland Barthes, all narratives share structural characteristics which are woven together in various ways. Regardless of the variations between personal narratives, all narratives use a limited amount of hierarchical structures (specifically, five) that influence our reading of texts. Hermeneutic code, proairetic code, cultural code, connotative code, and symbolic code are the five narrative codes

- Hermeneutic Codes - Enigma, deliberately withheld information to create mystery
- Proairetic Codes - Action, plot points that move the story forward
- Semantic Codes - Connotation, Codes that have a deeper meaning than their denotation
- Symbolic Codes - Thematic or structural devices. Aided by Binary Opposites.
- Cultural Codes - Prior knowledge to help the reader decode all of the signifiers correctly.

2. Narrative Theory - Tzvetan Todorov

Todorov's theory of narrative equilibrium is based around a three act structure. Firstly, a state of balance or equilibrium is established. This balance is disrupted or broken in some way, which leads to a liminal period or period of disruption. This second stage typically takes up the majority of a narrative. Finally, a typical narrative will conclude with a partial restoration of the equilibrium or new equilibrium, which will see the world of the narrative return to some sense of normality.
• Therefore, Todorov suggests that narratives move from one state of equilibrium to another, with the majority of a narrative focusing on conflict or imbalance.
• This structure can be summed up as:
• Equilibrium
• Disruption/disequilibrium
• Partial restoration of the disequilibrium
• All narratives share a basic structure that involves a movement from one state of equilibrium to another
• The idea that these two states of equilibrium are separated by a period of imbalance or disequilibrium
• The way in which narratives are resolved can have particular ideological significance.

3. Binary Opposites - Levi Strauss

We all understand the world in terms of opposites. It is the conflict of these opposites that drives a narrative forward. The winner is often the ideology of the producer.

Representation

1. Representation Theory - Stuart Hall

Media does not reflect meaning, media creates meaning. Representations are constructed through media language, and reflect the ideological perspective of the producer. Stereotyping, as a form of representation, reduces people to a few simple characteristics or traits. However, stereotyping is useful, as it allows producers to easily construct media products, and audiences to easily decode them. Stereotyping tends to occur where there are inequalities of power, as subordinate or excluded groups are constructed as different or ‘other’ (e.g. through ethnocentrism).

2. Identity Theory - Stuart Hall

The media provides us with 'tools' that we use to find our construct our identity. The media today offer us a more diverse range of range of stars, icons and characters from whom we may pick and mix different ideas and personalities

3. Male Gaze - Laura Mulvey

Women are passive in a narrative, and their only purpose is as an object for the male characters to look upon. This is shown through camerawork (angles, clos-ups, slow movement), Mis-en-scene (revealing clothing), eye contact (sometimes looking at the camera directly)

Media Industry

1. Media Ownership/Regulation

The media' is controlled by an increasingly small number of companies who are driven by profit and power

Regulation refers to a restrictions that every media has to follow

for example, The films in UK must get the age certificate by the BBFC (British Board of Film Classification), and television in UK must fulfill the OFCOM's regulation

Another prime example of how the ownership of media affects the media produced would be the Washington Post, which is owned by Amazon, which is owned by Jeff Bezos. In 2019, when Bezos's affair with news anchor Lauren Sanchez was uncovered, a myriad of media organizations reported negatively on the scandal, calling Bezos a liar, cheater, etc. However, the Washington Posts article on the matter painted him in a far more positive light, asking whether or not it was Bezos' fault, and always used a positive vocabulary to describe him. This, was obviously because he himself owned it, and would not want his own company to paint a negative picture of himself.

2. Synergy

The impact of using a cross-media approach to engage the target audience is referred to as media synergy. Most companies in the cultural industries employ this strategy.

For example, Black Panther wakanda forever (2022) and Rihanna "Lift Me Up" as the main soundtrack. This will attract audiences from both parties

3. Cross Media Convergence

A company that owns different types of media (Film,TV radio, etc) or media products are promoted by different types of media

For example, Spiderman was originally a movie produced by Sony, but then was made into a video game, Toys (Lego, Hasbro), which is a different form of media that provides promotion as it appeals to a wider range of audiences, and leads to greater profits as more consumers now purchase the game as well.

4. New Media

New media is when mass communication is delivered by the help of technology

5. Technology Convergence

The term "technological convergence" refers to the combination of previously unrelated technologies, often in a single device. The predisposition for previously unrelated technologies to grow increasingly tightly aligned, and perhaps even centralized, as they create and progress.

6. Vertical and Horizontal Integration

Audience Effects

1. Social Learning - Albert Bandura

After consuming media, the audience might go on to repeat what they have seen from media texts (in particular violent acts). The effects model suggests that media can implant ideas in the mind of the audience directly. It is also known as the hypodermic needle model. Bandura admitted that there may be other processes that contribute to behaviour

2. Cultivation Theory - George Gebner

Being exposed to repeated patterns of representation or ideologies over long periods of time can shape and influence the way in which people perceive the world around them. People will choose to consume media that already agrees with their opinions.

For example, Even if they are aware that the shows are fictitious, people who watch a lot of crime dramas may come to believe that the world is a more dangerous place than it is. To counteract this, more media literacy is required.

3. Reception Theory - Stuart Hall

Media producers encode their texts with desired meaning or messages. The audience decodes the text to understand meaning. However, all audiences are different and so receive the message differently. (Preferred, Negotiated, Oppositional)

4. Fandom Theory - Henry Jenkins

Fans are active participants in the construction of meanings or ideologies. Theory of fandom states that consumers can interact with other consumers and build groups that all share similar interests in specific media texts and genres. These consumers can then take part in activities like meet ups/gathering and do things like cosplay that fall under the category of enunciative productivity, which builds relationships with other fans/consumers.

Participatory culture: Fans construct their social/cultural identities through mass culture images.