Binary Opposites - Levi Strauss
We all understand the world in terms of opposites. It is the conflict of these opposites that drives a narrative forward. The winner is often the ideology of the producer.
Cultivation Theory - George Gerbner
Exposure to media over time will reinforce existing ideologies. People will choose to consume media that already agrees with their opinions.
Desensitisation (Compassion Fatigue)
Occurs when an audience is repeatedly exposed to shocking or violent content. They become less compassionate about what they are seeing anbd the events become 'normalised'
Feminine Discourses - Van Zoonen
Your sex is biological, your gender is behavioural. Van Zoonin’s theory suggests that gender is constructed by the media through stereotypes and portrayal of gender roles. The media believes this reflects dominant societal values (men in charge). However, this is unfair because the media is run by men. Constant negative portrayals of women in the media reinforces a patriarchy; Society ran by men, for men. With women being oppressed as a result.
Five Narrative Codes - Roland Barthes
- Hermeneutic Codes - Enigma, deliberately withheld information to create mystery
- Proairetic Codes - Action, plot points that move the story forward
- Semantic Codes - Connotation, Codes that have a deeper meaning than their denotation
- Symbolic Codes - Thematic or structural devices. Aided by Binary Opposites.
- Cultural Codes - Prior knowledge to help the reader decode all of the signifiers correctly.
Genre Theory - Steve Neale
Genre is a matter of repetition and difference. A text must conform to the conventions enough to be recognisable, yet subvert them enough to be different and interesting. This is to:
1) Provide pleasure and meaning for the audience.
2) Offset against financial risk
Genre is useful because it gives the audience expectations, provides a template for the producers, and provides distributors with an audience to target.
Hypodermic Needle Theory
Not really considered a working theory any more. The belief that the audience is a sponge, and accepts any message from the media without any question.
Male Gaze Theory - Laura Mulvey
Women are passive in a narrative, and their only purpose is as an object for the male characters to look upon. This is shown through camerawork (angles, clos-ups, slow movement), Mis-en-scene (revealing clothing), eye contact (sometimes looking at the camera directly)
Narrative Theory - Todorov
All linear narratives follow the same structure: Equilibrium, Disruptionm, Recognition, Attempt at repair, New equilibrium.
Postmodernism - Baudrillard
Note: Baudrillard did not create the theory of postmodernism, he just added to it. He suggests that everything is just a copy of a copy of a copy. Media has moved from reality, to heightened reality, finally to hyper reality. This hyper reality is a simulation where it is difficult to determine what is real and what is fake.. Baudrillard also thinks that people would prefer to live in this simulation because it is better that our real lives. He also says that this simulation is full of simulacra, a representation of reality that no longer exists or never existed in the first place.
Eg. An Instagram model presents themselves in a certain way, however their real life might not be anything like the one depicted on their account. This account, and the photos/videos on it, are simulacra, a representation of reality that does not exist.
Reception Theory - Stuart Hall
Media producers encode their texts with meaning. The audience decodes the text to understand meaning. However, all audiences are different and so receive the message differently. (Preferred, Negotiated, Oppositional)
Representation Theory - Stuart Hall
Media does not reflect meaning, media creates meaning.
Stereotypes are used as a result of a lack of diversity in production.
Meaning is created by hegemonic groups (rich, white, straight men) in order to maintain power.
Social Learning - Albert Bandura
After consuming media, the audience might go on to repeat what they have seen (in particular violent acts). Bandura admitted that there may be other processes that contribute to behaviour)
Two-Step Flow
A development of the hypodermic needle theory. The media is untrustworthy, so the audience has their interpretation formed by opinion leaders (trusted members of the community. Think celebrities, influencers)
Uses and Gratification - Bulmer & Katz
The audience is actively using the media to satisfy some of their base social needs;
- Diversion - A form of escapism from the stresses of everyday life
- Personal Identity - The media supplies us with role models
- Social Relationships - 1) People make connections with people they see on screen. 2) People can build their own social relationships
- Surveillance - People use the media to inform themselves about the world around them.
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